Atherosclerosis treatment in 913 Cardiac surgery and Vascular surgery clinics worldwide

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913 clinics specializing in Cardiac surgery and Vascular surgery providing treatment of Atherosclerosis Atherosclerosis is a progressive disease where plaque builds up inside the arteries, leading to narrowing and hardening of the arteries. It can cause reduced blood flow, chest pain, heart attacks, strokes, and requires lifestyle changes, medications, and interventions to manage.
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disease worldwide.

Africa · 10
Americas · 208
Asia · 282
Europe · 374
Oceania · 39
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Africa · 10 Americas · 208 Asia · 282 Europe · 374 Oceania · 39
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Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    $61,361
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $26,272
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $62,733
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    $16,217
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $14,000
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $4,141
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $7,514
  8. Coronary catheterization
    $2,411
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $14,089
photo
Seoul, South Korea
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology, Dentistry
The hospital is fully devoted to elevating its medical service quality by introducing state-of-the-art equipment and systems such as Robot surgery, Linear Accelerator, 3.0T MRI, read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    $3,093
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $4,851
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $5,899
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $1,639
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    $2,254 - $4,009
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $222
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $561
  8. Coronary catheterization
    $145
  9. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    $3,394
photo
Colombo, Sri Lanka
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: English
It is located in Sri Jayewardenepura, the capital of Sri Lanka, on nearly 30 acres of beautifully landscaped garden with serene nature. This state of read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    $6,674
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $7,591
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    $6,759
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    $959
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    $2,779
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $511
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,077
  8. Coronary catheterization
    $643
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $1,851
photo
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology, Dentistry
Languages: English, Russian
At the Almaty SEMA Hospital Clinic, you can get a full range of medical services provided by our leading specialists. Whether you need a small read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $8,137
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,483
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $9,400
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  8. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
  9. Renal artery angioplasty and stenting
    ≈ $2,495
photo
Lajeado, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Bruno Born Hospital is a philanthropic institution, with more than 80 years. It is registered with the National, State and Municipal Councils of Social Assistance read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $8,137
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,483
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $9,400
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $938
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
photo
São Paulo, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​ Hospital São Camilo Pompeia has followed, over the years, the growth of the population and the scientific and technological advances aimed at medical and read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $8,137
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,483
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $9,400
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $938
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
photo
São Paulo, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Integrated into the São Camilo de São Paulo Hospitals Network in March 1979, the Santana Unit has an agile and modern structure implemented to offer read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  3. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  4. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  5. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $938
  6. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
  7. Renal artery angioplasty and stenting
    ≈ $2,495
  8. Peripheral artery bypass
    ≈ $4,948
  9. Aortoiliac allografting
    ≈ $8,221
photo
São Paulo, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
A member of the Network since 2000, Hospital São Camilo Ipiranga has an emergency room for patients aged 12 years and over, an Intensive Care read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
  2. Renal artery angioplasty and stenting
    ≈ $2,495
  3. Peripheral artery bypass
    ≈ $4,948
  4. Aortoiliac allografting
    ≈ $8,221
  5. Femoral-popliteal bypass graft surgery
    ≈ $3,639
  6. Renal artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $5,084
  7. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $365
  8. Peripheral angiography
    ≈ $515
  9. Cerebral angiography
    ≈ $875
photo
São Paulo, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Founded in 1968, the Mooca unit is known for being a highly complex Oncological Treatment Center and for having a renowned Clinical Research Center. In read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $8,137
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,483
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $9,400
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $938
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
photo
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Quinta D'Or Hospital opened in September 2001 and is located opposite Quinta da Boa Vista, in Rio de Janeiro. It emerged from the renovation read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $8,137
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,483
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $9,400
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $938
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
photo
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Lifecenter Hospital stands out among the most sophisticated and renowned health institutions in Minas Gerais. Its activities cover urgent and emergency medical care, surgeries, read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $18,185
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $19,942
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $17,610
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,928
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
We invite you to visit one of the largest health institutions in the country… A sanatorium with history, but looking to the future. The Doctor read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $18,185
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $19,942
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $17,610
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,928
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The British Hospital of Buenos Aires is a non-profit civil association that aims to provide the community with highly complex health care, train medical professionals read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $8,137
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,483
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $9,400
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,940
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,562
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $556
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $971
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $938
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,086
photo
Serra, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Founded in 2001, Vitória Apart Hospital is a center of excellence in high complexity medicine in Espírito Santo, prepared to take care of people's health read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $18,185
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $19,942
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $17,610
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  9. Peripheral artery bypass
    ≈ $11,321
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Hospital de Clínicas José de San Martín is the flagship teaching hospital in our country. Dependent on the University of Buenos Aires, read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Peripheral artery bypass
    ≈ $11,321
  2. Aortoiliac allografting
    ≈ $12,832
  3. Femoral-popliteal bypass graft surgery
    ≈ $6,475
  4. Renal artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $6,092
  5. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $368
  6. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $7,089
  7. Arteriovenous (AV) fistula surgery
    ≈ $2,082
  8. Endovascular thrombectomy
    ≈ $3,687
  9. Fontan procedure
    ≈ $18,652
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Ricardo Gutiérrez Children's Hospital is a highly complex, tertiary, reference hospital for the entire country and neighboring countries. Since its creation, in 1875, it read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $18,185
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $19,942
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $17,610
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,928
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Hospital "Prof. Dr. Juan P. Garrahan" is the pediatric center of reference in public health, free and highly complex in Argentina. Since its inauguration, read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  3. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  4. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  5. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  6. Peripheral angiography
    ≈ $915
  7. Cerebral angiography
    ≈ $1,031
  8. Femoral artery angiography
    ≈ $932
  9. Heart valve replacement
    ≈ $25,988
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
On July 24, 1896, the Pirovano Hospital (which was to be called Belgrano Hospital) opened its doors to ensure the assistance of an original population read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  3. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  4. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  5. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  6. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,928
  7. Renal artery angioplasty and stenting
    ≈ $3,577
  8. Peripheral angiography
    ≈ $915
  9. Cerebral angiography
    ≈ $1,031
photo
Posadas, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Health Park of the Province of Misiones "Dr. Ramón Madariaga" was created through Law XVII Nº70, approved by the majority of the legislative body read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $18,185
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $19,942
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $17,610
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,599
  9. Angioplasty of the brachiocephalic vessels
    ≈ $2,928
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery
Inaugurated on March 1, 1991, the Suizo Argentina Clinic and Maternity began its history with a revolutionary vision in the concept of care and comfort read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $18,185
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $19,942
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass surgery
    ≈ $17,610
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $6,111
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $7,271
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $821
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,952
  8. Peripheral artery bypass
    ≈ $11,321
  9. Aortoiliac allografting
    ≈ $12,832
photo
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Revista del Hospital El Cruce (ISSN: 2524-9932), in its abbreviated name Rev Hosp El Cruce, is a scientific and continuous periodical publication of the read more

Clinics grouping by rating

Clinic with the highest rating of 5 — Berkana clinic in Moscow, Russia and 6 more, clinic with the most reviews number of 35757 — Aster CMI hospital in Bengaluru, India.

With rating 4.0 and over — 328 clinics .

Countries with the highest number of clinics treating the diseases:

Atherosclerosis:

Related procedures:

Atherosclerosis - Overview

Introduction

Atherosclerosis is a chronic cardiovascular disease that primarily affects the Inner layer of the large and medium-sized arteries in different localizations. The disease is characterized by the presence of atheroma plaques (fatty streaks), which form inside the artery walls [1]. Atherosclerosis represents the primary cause of death in industrialized and non-industrialized countries, affecting both genders and leading to a high rate of hospitalizations [2]. A specific reason for the occurrence of this cardiovascular disease remains unclear. However, many factors, such as lifestyle behavior, a high-carbohydrate diet, genetics, dyslipidemia, smoking, and sedentarism, are linked to atheroma plaque development [3].

Overview

In simple words, an atheroma plaque is a formation of inflammatory cells (detritus, lipids, and macrophages) located inside the artery walls, which can be present even since childhood, growing in size through the years and consequently producing symptoms already in adulthood. Plaques can be different in status; a plaque with a low probability of disruption and is detected occasionally is considered a stable plaque. In contrast, non-stable plaques produce symptoms and are at high risk of rupture. Atheroma plaques are different in size and can reduce the blood flow, leading to various symptoms, depending on their localization. As a consequence of plaque disruption, clot recruitment occurs, and blood flow is reduced even more, leading to fatal consequences. [4]

Symptoms of Atherosclerosis and Plaque Localization

As mentioned above, atheroma plaques might even be present in childhood, but the initial symptoms of atherosclerosis might appear only after several years in adulthood. Clinical signs are mostly detected as a chronic silent disease when a non-stable plaque rupture.

Coronary arteries

A plaque located in coronary arteries may cause chest pain (angina episodes); this happens because the atheroma plaque reduces the blood flow to the myocardium provoking pain due to ischemia. Eventually, a plaque disruption can lead to blood clot formation (thrombosis) of the coronary arteries causing myocardial infarction [5].

Carotid arteries

Other frequent localizations of atheroma plaques are the carotid arteries. In this case, the reduction of blood flow is directly related to the brain. Therefore, symptoms are neurological. However, the main factor is reduced cerebral blood flow, sometimes leading to loss of consciousness. It is also important to consider that a plaque rupture in this localization can lead to thrombosis, which will cause an ischemic stroke [5].

Peripheral arteries

Peripheral arteries of the upper and lower limbs are another commonly affected localization. General symptoms are claudication and pain in this area [5]. It should be noted that symptoms are proportional to the degree of plaque size; a small and stable plaque is often asymptomatic.

Modern lifestyle and risk factors

Cardiovascular diseases are linked to non-modifiable risk factors like age and genetics, as well as modifiable ones such as a high carbohydrate diet, alcohol consumption, smoking, and sedentarism. These factors increase the risk of coronary artery disease, hypertension, heart failure, and arrhythmias like atrial fibrillation, which may require anticoagulants to prevent complications.

Sedentary lifestyle

Sedentarism, or low levels of activity and movement, is an unhealthy lifestyle, while physical activity reduces the risk of chronic cardiovascular diseases. Experimental studies simulating a sedentary lifestyle showed negative biochemical changes, including decreased lipoprotein lipase activity, lower triglyceride absorption in muscles, and reduced high-density lipoprotein levels, all increasing the risk of atherosclerosis developing. A 2016 meta-analysis of 720,425 patients from nine studies, with a median follow-up of 11 years, found that those with the highest inactivity (12.5 hours/day) had a 1.14 times higher risk of cardiovascular events compared to the least inactive (2.5 hours/day). A sedentary lifestyle of more than 10 hours/day also significantly increased risk (HR = 1.08). These results confirm that prolonged inactivity is linked to a higher risk of cardiovascular diseases [7].

Prevention of Atherosclerosis

Primary prevention, which involves taking action before health issues arise, is the key factor in reducing the burden of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, reducing alcohol consumption, eating healthy, smoking cessation, and moderate-intensity physical activity are strictly recommended in all populations.

Physical activity has demonstrated its benefits and cardioprotective effect to prevent and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases [8]. However, an objective assessment of the physical activity necessary to achieve the desired results requires an individual approach for each person.

Smart wristbands and mobile applications help track physical activity and encourage daily exercise. Despite factors like lack of time and misconceptions about the required amount of exercise to prevent cardiovascular diseases limiting active lifestyles, evidence shows that any level of physical activity is better than none.

According to recommendations from the World Health Organization (WHO) on physical activity, a minimum of 150 minutes of moderate physical activity per week is required to prevent cardiovascular diseases, but, unfortunately, less than 10% of the general population meets this criterion. Over the past fifty years, obesity has been the first and main modifiable risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. The WHO reported that more than 1 billion people worldwide are obese, including 650 million adults, 340 million teenagers, and 39 million children. [10].

How is Atherosclerosis diagnosed?

The presence or absence of symptoms plays an important role in diagnosing atherosclerosis. In asymptomatic patients, diagnosis might be challenging; therefore, lipid profile screening and physical examination are recommended for adults over 40. Doctors also estimate the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease according to the following parameters: age, sex, race, systolic blood pressure, total and HDL cholesterol levels, diabetes, and smoking.

The following methods may be used to diagnose atherosclerosis:

  • Blood tests (lipid profile, plasma glucose, and others) at the doctor's discretion. Electrocardiogram and cardiac echocardiography can also be performed in patients with chest pain.
  • Ultrasound, a non-invasive method that can be used to assess the presence of an atheroma plaques
  • Cardiac angiography is a diagnostic method that allows the identification of areas where the arteries are affected by atheroma plaque and show a significant reduction in artery diameter.
  • Magnetic resonance (MRI) and computed tomography angiography (CTA) can also help identify atheroma plaques [5].

Treatment for atherosclerosis

  • Lifestyle modification, including a healthy diet, physical activity, reduced alcohol consumption, and smoking cessation, is an important part of treatment. The need for pharmacological or invasive treatment depends on the clinical presentation.
  • Preventive medications. Taking statins in asymptomatic patients lowers cholesterol levels. Antiplatelets help reduce the risk of clot formation.
  • In patients who have experienced complications from plaque rupture, treatment includes pharmacological therapy for concomitant diseases such as heart failure, coronary artery disease, arrhythmias, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and diabetes.

Healthcare providers will determine whether minimally invasive procedures like percutaneous coronary intervention with stent placement or major surgery like coronary artery bypass grafting are needed based on each patient's clinical case.

Conclusion

Atherosclerosis is a silent chronic disease affecting millions of people. It is important to note that atherosclerosis is not an isolated disease but is associated with many other cardiovascular comorbidities. Modern lifestyles and the recent COVID-19 pandemic have significantly increased sedentary behavior, reduced physical activity, and heightened the burden of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, addressing these risk factors is crucial for reducing the development of atherosclerosis.

References

  1. Fan J, Watanabe T. Atherosclerosis: Known and unknown. Pathol Int. 2022 Mar;72(3):151-160. doi: 10.1111/pin.13202. Epub 2022 Jan 25. PMID: 35076127.
  2. Libby P. The changing landscape of atherosclerosis. Nature. 2021 Apr;592(7855):524-533. doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03392-8. Epub 2021 Apr 21. PMID: 33883728.
  3. Arocha Rodulfo JI. Sedentary lifestyle a disease from xxi century. Clin Investig Arterioscler. 2019 Sep-Oct;31(5):233-240. English, Spanish. doi: 10.1016/j.arteri.2019.04.004. Epub 2019 Jun 17. PMID: 31221536.
  4. Soehnlein O, Libby P. Targeting inflammation in atherosclerosis - from experimental insights to the clinic. Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2021 Aug;20(8):589-610. doi: 10.1038/s41573-021-00198-1. Epub 2021 May 11. PMID: 33976384; PMCID: PMC8112476.
  5. Libby P, Buring JE, Badimon L, Hansson GK, Deanfield J, Bittencourt MS, Tokgözoğlu L, Lewis EF. Atherosclerosis. Nat Rev Dis Primers. 2019 Aug 16;5(1):56. doi: 10.1038/s41572-019-0106-z. PMID: 31420554.
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  • Isabella Gonzalez, M.D.
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