Coronary artery disease (CAD) treatment in 886 Cardiac surgery and Vascular surgery clinics worldwide

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886 clinics specializing in Cardiac surgery and Vascular surgery providing treatment of Coronary artery disease (CAD) Coronary artery disease (CAD) is a condition where plaque buildup narrows the coronary arteries, reducing blood flow to the heart. It can cause chest pain, heart attacks, and requires lifestyle changes, medications, or medical procedures for management.
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worldwide.

Africa · 10
Americas · 203
Asia · 281
Europe · 353
Oceania · 39
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Africa · 10 Americas · 203 Asia · 281 Europe · 353 Oceania · 39
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Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $20,278
  2. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $20,725
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $26,983
  4. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $1,425
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $7,579
  6. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $3,173
  7. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $547
  8. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $11,460
  9. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $11,089
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Bangkok, Thailand
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: Amharic, Bengali, Burmese, Chinese, English, Japanese, Khmer, Korean, Russian, Vietnamese
Vejthani Hospital, established in 1994, is one of the leading private international hospitals in Thailand that provides JCI accredited quaternary health care services. Cutting-edge medical read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass grafting (MIDCAB)
    ≈ $28,859
  2. Totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass (TECAB)
    ≈ $15,705
  3. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $16,438
  4. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $16,950
  5. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $38,084
  6. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $1,795
  7. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $7,950
  8. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $3,735
  9. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $556
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Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: Arabic, English
Patient satisfaction is of paramount importance to us at RAK Hospital. Since our inception in 2007, we have strived to provide effective treatments and every read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $3,896
  2. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $18,768
  3. Carotid endarterectomy (CEA)
    ≈ $11,412
  4. Heart valve replacement
    ≈ $39,190
  5. Heart valve repair
    ≈ $35,744
  6. Aortic valve replacement (AVR)
    ≈ $39,856
  7. Mitral valve replacement (MVR)
    ≈ $32,624
  8. Transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR)
    ≈ $73,160
  9. Carotid angioplasty and stenting
    ≈ $18,147
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Bendigo, Australia
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Bendigo Health is a leading regional health service, with around 4000 staff and a catchment area covering a quarter of the size of Victoria. The read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $610
  2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,729
  3. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $856
  4. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $2,824
  5. Cardiac catheterization
    ≈ $1,485
  6. Percutaneous ASD closure
    ≈ $5,259
  7. Percutaneous closure of ventricular septal defect (VSD)
    ≈ $6,340
  8. Rashkind procedure
    ≈ $4,936
  9. Left atrial appendage occlusion
    ≈ $6,109
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Budapest, Hungary
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Uzsoki Utcai Hospital operates at 3 sites with 17 healing and 4 diagnostic departments and numerous departments: ophthalmology, surgery, gynecology-obstetrics, otolaryngology, orthopedics-traumatology, urology, neurology, read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass grafting (MIDCAB)
    ≈ $33,096
  2. Totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass (TECAB)
    ≈ $17,828
  3. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $20,666
  4. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $34,364
  5. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $39,904
  6. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $1,027
  7. Carotid endarterectomy (CEA)
    ≈ $11,412
  8. Heart valve replacement
    ≈ $39,190
  9. Heart valve repair
    ≈ $35,744
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Camperdown, Australia
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: Portuguese, Russian, Turkish
Royal Prince Alfred Hospital is one of Australia's premier tertiary referral hospitals and is recognised as a worldwide leader in healthcare excellence and innovation. RPA read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $17,204
  2. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $11,900
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $12,639
  4. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $289
  5. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,508
  6. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $6,359
  7. Heart valve replacement
    ≈ $11,700
  8. Heart valve repair
    ≈ $15,788
  9. Aortic valve replacement (AVR)
    ≈ $25,790
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Bogota, Colombia
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
We are a new model of comprehensive health care, backed by a differential human team that works together with the best quality and comfort standards read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $642
  2. Arteriovenous (AV) fistula surgery
    ≈ $4,428
  3. Endovascular thrombectomy
    ≈ $8,909
  4. Varicose veins treatment
    ≈ $9,470
  5. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for varicose veins (Unilateral)
    ≈ $3,643
  6. Foam sclerotherapy (Unilateral)
    ≈ $1,369
  7. Endovenous laser ablation (EVLA) for varicose vein (Unilateral)
    ≈ $4,144
  8. Phlebectomy (including mini-phleboctomy)
    ≈ $2,805
  9. Catheter-directed sclerotherapy (CDS) (Unilateral)
    ≈ $1,178
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Burlington, Canada
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: English, French, German, Italian, Polish, Spanish; Castilian
We are committed to exemplary health care. We are focused on clinical excellence, quality and patient safety. We have a passion for service. Since 1961, read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Heart transplantation
    ≈ $61,023
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $22,057
  3. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $39,118
  4. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $51,210
  5. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $3,492
  6. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $15,155
  7. Heart valve replacement
    ≈ $42,070
  8. Heart valve repair
    ≈ $49,710
  9. Aortic valve replacement (AVR)
    ≈ $39,415
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Winnipeg, Canada
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Oncology
St. Boniface Hospital has been providing leadership in health care on behalf of Manitobans since it was first established by the Grey Nuns in 1871.The read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $556
  2. Carotid endarterectomy (CEA)
    ≈ $12,772
  3. Arteriovenous (AV) fistula surgery
    ≈ $4,124
  4. Endovascular thrombectomy
    ≈ $11,146
  5. Carotid angioplasty and stenting
    ≈ $17,901
  6. Uterine artery embolization (UAE)
    ≈ $8,120
  7. Varicose veins treatment
    ≈ $8,017
  8. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for varicose veins (Unilateral)
    ≈ $4,150
  9. Foam sclerotherapy (Unilateral)
    ≈ $1,349
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Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Specializations: Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: English, Arabic
Mediclinic Parkview Hospital opened in September 2018 as Mediclinic Middle East’s third hospital in Dubai and its seventh in the UAE. The largest ever greenfield read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $297
  2. Peripheral artery angioplasty and stent placement
    ≈ $2,720
  3. Arteriovenous (AV) fistula surgery
    ≈ $573
  4. Endovascular thrombectomy
    ≈ $2,323
  5. Uterine artery embolization (UAE)
    ≈ $2,279
  6. Varicose veins treatment
    ≈ $975
  7. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for varicose veins (Unilateral)
    ≈ $905
  8. Foam sclerotherapy (Unilateral)
    ≈ $175
  9. Endovenous laser ablation (EVLA) for varicose vein (Unilateral)
    ≈ $962
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Bratislava, Slovakia
Specializations: Vascular surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Staré Mesto Hospital is part of the University Hospital Bratislava (UNB) is the largest medical facility in Slovakia. The basic mission of UNB is to read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Heart transplantation
    ≈ $32,109
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $10,000
  3. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $14,000
  4. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $15,034
  5. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $1,033
  6. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $5,522
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,869
  8. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $248
  9. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $1,645
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Istanbul, Turkey
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: Albanian, Arabic, Bulgarian, English, French, Georgian, Romanian, Russian
The 21-storey hospital with 62.500 sqm of closed area has a smart building system that instantly responds to any problem inside the building. It also read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $31,433
  2. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $33,028
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $21,911
  4. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $683
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $8,196
  6. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $2,788
  7. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $401
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $2,311
  9. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $11,737
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Paris, France
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: English, French
Located south of Paris (14th arrondissement), right behind the Montsouris Park, the Institut Mutualiste Montsouris (IMM) is a multidisciplinary hospital well known for its medical read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Heart transplantation
    ≈ $21,000
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $7,000
  3. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $6,750
  4. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $4,845
  5. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $707
  6. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,377
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,375
  8. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $5,153
  9. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $4,216
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Mumbai, India
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
The Jaslok Hospital & Research Centre is one of the oldest tertiary care, multi-specialty Trust hospitals in the country. In the late 60s, when the read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $53,286
  2. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $125,000
  3. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $79,426
  4. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $5,913
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $25,779
  6. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $11,477
  7. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $39,011
  8. Heart valve replacement
    ≈ $90,550
  9. Heart valve repair
    ≈ $89,173
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Mayfield Heights, United States
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Hillcrest Hospital opened on November 23, 1968, in Mayfield to meet the healthcare needs of rapidly growing east side communities. There were 237 beds and read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $269
  2. Arteriovenous (AV) fistula surgery
    ≈ $1,304
  3. Endovascular thrombectomy
    ≈ $2,650
  4. Cardiac catheterization
    ≈ $1,485
  5. Percutaneous ASD closure
    ≈ $5,259
  6. Percutaneous closure of ventricular septal defect (VSD)
    ≈ $6,340
  7. Balloon angioplasty and stenting of aorta coarctation
    ≈ $5,869
  8. Rashkind procedure
    ≈ $4,936
  9. Surgical thrombectomy
    ≈ $3,518
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Győr, Hungary
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Petz Aladár County University Hospital in Gyor is one of the largest in Hungary, and it is our designated hospital for specialty care. It read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Heart transplantation
    ≈ $17,997
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $8,577
  3. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $2,474
  4. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $7,639
  5. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $302
  6. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $673
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $899
  8. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $486
  9. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $3,293
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Hanoi, Vietnam
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Languages: English, French, Japanese, Korean
Vinmec Times City International Hospital is the first hospital in the Vinmec Health System chain to be put into operation. Located in the most modern read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $3,206
  2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    $4,457
  3. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $6,032
  4. Coronary catheterization
    $1,262
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $24,420
  6. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $20,075
  7. Permanent pacemaker implantation
    ≈ $18,620
  8. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
    ≈ $61,149
  9. Cardiac catheterization
    ≈ $6,418
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Helsinki, Finland
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery
Languages: English, Russian
Helsinki Heart Hospital performs basic heart examinations and outpatient procedures, such as cardiac angiography, angioplasty and defibrillation. In Helsinki there is also a clinic offering read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Heart transplantation
    ≈ $21,000
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $7,000
  3. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $6,750
  4. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $4,845
  5. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $707
  6. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,377
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $1,375
  8. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $189
  9. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $559
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Indore, India
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
Our multi-super specialty hospital in Indore brings the highest quality of medical services to central India. The 175-bed facility is an extension of the flagship read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $3,206
  2. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    $4,706
  3. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $6,032
  4. Coronary catheterization
    $1,395
  5. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with stent insertion
    ≈ $24,420
  6. Dual chamber pacemaker insertion
    ≈ $20,075
  7. Permanent pacemaker implantation
    ≈ $18,620
  8. Radiofrequency ablation (RFA)
    ≈ $61,149
  9. Cardiac catheterization
    ≈ $6,418
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Jyväskylä, Finland
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery
Our services include outpatient clinic, cardiac monitoring (G2), cardiac procedure department (H2) and cardiac procedure rooms, and cardiac department (C6). Nova Heart Hospital operates in read more
Prices for popular procedures:
  1. Heart transplantation
    ≈ $14,992
  2. Redo heart surgery
    ≈ $5,434
  3. Coronary artery bypass graft (CABG)
    ≈ $7,950
  4. Off-pump coronary artery bypass
    ≈ $9,140
  5. Fractional flow reserve (FFR)
    ≈ $541
  6. Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with angioplasty
    ≈ $3,848
  7. Rotational atherectomy
    ≈ $952
  8. Endoscopic vein harvesting (EVH) for coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG)
    ≈ $353
  9. Coronary catheterization
    ≈ $907
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São Paulo, Brazil
Specializations: Cardiac surgery, Vascular surgery, Thoracic surgery, Neurosurgery, Spine surgery, Orthopedic surgery, Oncology
A new hospital, but with history Rede Americas, a reference in hospital care group in Brazil, launches another excellent hospital in São Paulo, Samaritano Paulista read more

Clinics grouping by rating

Clinic with the highest rating of 5 — Berkana clinic in Moscow, Russia and 6 more, clinic with the most reviews number of 35612 — Aster CMI hospital in Bengaluru, India.

With rating 4.0 and over — 315 clinics .

Countries with the highest number of clinics treating the diseases:

Coronary artery disease (CAD):

Related procedures:

Coronary artery disease and diabetes mellitus – how are they linked?

Cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of diseases that is associated with an increase in the concentration of glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia) and occurs as a result of insufficient release of insulin or a violation of its action on tissues.

There are several types of diabetes mellitus. The most common type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus. T1DM manifests itself in childhood and immediately needs insulin therapy. T2DM most often affects adults over 45 years of age. Therapy for this type of disease begins with antidiabetic drugs and only after a long time from the onset of the disease. T2DM is more common than T1DM.

Chronic hyperglycemia leads to complications from the heart and blood vessels (diabetic micro- and macroangiopathy in diabetes mellitus), kidney, eyes and nervous system (for example, signs of cerebral microangiopathy). Below we will analyze in detail the features of its effect on the cardiovascular system.

Prevalence of diabetes mellitus worldwide

Thanks to improvements in diagnostic and treatment methods, the incidence and mortality from cardiovascular disease in the population has dropped significantly over the past decades. Similar tendencies were observed in diabetics. However, despite these improvements, diabetes continues to be the cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in all age groups and among both sexes.

An aging population and a global epidemic of obesity due to poor diet and sedentary lifestyles have led to an increase in the number of patients with diabetes mellitus (DM) worldwide. Since the 1980s, the global prevalence of the disease has more than doubled in men and 60% in women.

6.4% of the world's population in 2010 had diabetes mellitus. The number of people with the disease is expected to grow to nearly 600 million in the next two decades worldwide.

The prevalence of T2DM increases with age in both sexes, but men get sick more often than women. Pathology has a significant relationship with ethnicity and is most common among Negroids and Mexican Americans.

Diabetes mellitus and heart disease link

Diabetes mellitus is recognized as a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and is associated with other causes of this pathology, such as hyperlipidemia (increased blood fat levels), hypertension (increased blood pressure), and obesity (diabetes comorbidity).

A large study conducted between 1997 and 2002 showed that diabetic patients requiring anti-hypoglycemic drugs have a cardiovascular risk equivalent to non-diabetic patients with previous myocardial infarction (MI).

Thus, diabetes increases the risk of developing the following pathologies:

  • ischemic heart disease;
  • heart failure;
  • atrial fibrillation;
  • stroke, etc.

Cardiovascular disease remains the leading cause of death in people with diabetes. More than 68% of diabetics over 65 die from them. On average, people with diabetes die several years earlier than patients with CVD but not diabetes mellitus.

The strong link between diabetes and CVD has been a major topic of interest among clinicians.

Etiology and pathophysiology of cardiovascular diseases in diabetes mellitus

Research in recent decades has shed light on the link between diabetes and CVD. A complex interaction between multiple biological mechanisms underlies the increased risk of CVD in patients with diabetes.
These mechanisms can be classified into six main groups:

  1. Damage to body tissues due to violations of the concentration of glucose in the blood.
    Insulin resistance is associated with the presence and progression of coronary artery disease (CAD), which significantly affects the prognosis of heart failure (HF). Also, elevated glucose levels play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis and microvascular complications in patients with T2DM.
  2. The presence of common mechanisms for the development of diabetes and CVD.
    The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) is a cascade of enzymes (biologically active molecules) that is involved in a large number of physiological mechanisms in the human body. There is growing evidence that over-activation of the RAAS is a link between obesity, diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. RAAS blockade is an important component of the treatment of arterial hypertension and heart failure (HF). Moreover, thanks to it, there is an increase in insulin secretion by the pancreas and an improvement in tissue sensitivity to insulin.
    Obesity-induced inflammation is also a central component of the link between obesity, T2DM, coronary artery disease, and heart failure. Adipose tissue in overweight people attracts immune cells that trigger chronic inflammation. The latter contributes to the development of T2DM, atherosclerosis, ischemic heart disease and heart failure.
    Also, recent studies have shown a significant effect of vasopressin on the development of diabetes and CVD. This hormone normally constricts blood vessels and increases blood pressure. The vasopressin system may in the future be a new therapeutic target for the prevention of heart disease in patients with diabetes.
  3. Contribution of other CVD risk factors (such as hypertension and hyperlipidemia) that usually coexist with diabetes.
    Adipose tissue surrounding the heart (pericardial adipose tissue, PAT) is an independent risk factor for left ventricular hypertrophy (enlargement), coronary artery disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, and cardiovascular mortality.
    Individuals with prediabetes and diabetes mellitus have a significantly higher PAT volume than those with normal blood glucose levels. There are several distinct mechanisms that usually occur due to excess PAT. These include: damage to the inner layer of blood vessels, fatty infiltration of the myocardium (saturation of the heart muscle with fat), oxidative stress, inflammatory reactions.
    Arterial hypertension (AH) also affects the majority of patients with diabetes. Its prevalence varies with age, gender, ethnicity, and type of diabetes. The coexistence of hypertension and diabetes mellitus, especially with uncontrolled blood pressure, dramatically increases cardiovascular risk.
    Dyslipidemia (an imbalance in fat) is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes. The lipid profile (fat concentration) in patients with well-controlled type 1 diabetes usually does not differ significantly from the lipid profile of the general population. However, patients with T2DM and uncontrolled T1DM usually have elevated triglycerides, decreased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, "good cholesterol"), and increased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL, "bad cholesterol").
  4. Genetic predisposition.
    Scientists have studied several genetic factors that affect the progression and prognosis of CVD in diabetes. Thus, variations in the genotypes of haptoglobin are well established genetic risk factors for cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes. Haptoglobin is an acute phase protein (involved in inflammatory reactions) that binds to free hemoglobin and prevents oxidative tissue damage caused by it.
  5. Impact of epigenetic factors.
    Epigenetic mechanisms affect the activity of human genes. They carry out the connection between the influence of the environment and the activity of hereditary traits. Epigenetic changes in cardiovascular cells caused by chronic hyperglycemia, inflammation and oxidative stress contribute significantly to the increased risk of vascular dysfunction and cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes.
  6. Apoptosis.
    Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death. Studies have shown that in people with diabetes, compared with people without diabetes, apoptosis of the cells of the heart and blood vessels increases several times.

Thus, diabetes and heart disease are closely related. Often the doctor is faced with the task of not only treating one of these diseases, but also reducing the risks of a second pathology.

References:

  1. Oktay, A. A., Akturk, H. K., Esenboğa, K., Javed, F., Polin, N. M., & Jahangir, E. (2018). Pathophysiology and Prevention of Heart Disease in Diabetes Mellitus. Current Problems in Cardiology, 43(3), 68–110. doi:10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2017.05.0.
  2. Harrison`s Principles of Internal Medicine 19/E (Vol.1). Dennis Kasper, Anthony Fauci, Stephen Hauseret all. McGraw-HillEducation 2015 ISBN: 0071802134 ISBN-13(EAN): 9780071802130.
  3. Interna szczeklika - duży podręcznik. Medycyna praktyczna. 2021. ISBN 9788374306522.